Wednesday, January 27, 2010

Early to Bed: A Cure for Teen Depression?

The National Sleep Foundation recently posted an article about the importance of sleep and its relation to depression in teens. It failed to give any real reasons why the lack of sleep would cause depression, but gave good statistical information on why depression and the lack of sleep in adolescence is correlated.

Here is some of what the article said:
"dolescents with a late bedtime (midnight or later) were 24 percent more likely to suffer from depression. Adolescents who reported sleeping less than 5 hours per night were 71 percent more likely to suffer from depression"


So what might be some of the causes for this? Well during sleep many different chemical processes are happening. Recently I read about how proteins called Sleep Regulatory Substances are produced by neurons in the brain and may be one of the causes for us to sleep. If we didn't sleep and take time to get rid of these proteins then we could feel groggy all day and of course be depressed. I tend to fall on the slightly older explanation that serotonin production is the cause of this depressive behavior.

Though recently an article was released where depression is thought to be no longer caused by the depletion of serotonin in the brain by because of a lowered amount of dopamine in the brain. Serotonin levels have something to do with this but its not clear how yet. At any rate, during sleep serotonin is one of the many chemical processes occurring, and a loss of sleep would be a huge damper on the amount of serotonin in the brain. The result, a sad face for the rest of the day.

You can read more about the article here:
http://www.sleepfoundation.org/alert/early-bed-cure-teen-depression

Early to Bed: A Cure for Teen Depression?

The National Sleep Foundation recently posted an article about the importance of sleep and its relation to depression in teens. It failed to give any real reasons why the lack of sleep would cause depression, but gave good statistical information on why depression and the lack of sleep in adolescence is correlated.

Here is some of what the article said:
"dolescents with a late bedtime (midnight or later) were 24 percent more likely to suffer from depression. Adolescents who reported sleeping less than 5 hours per night were 71 percent more likely to suffer from depression"


So what might be some of the causes for this? Well during sleep many different chemical processes are happening. Recently I read about how proteins called Sleep Regulatory Substances are produced by neurons in the brain and may be one of the causes for us to sleep. If we didn't sleep and take time to get rid of these proteins then we could feel groggy all day and of course be depressed. I tend to fall on the slightly older explanation that serotonin production is the cause of this depressive behavior.

Though recently an article was released where depression is thought to be no longer caused by the depletion of serotonin in the brain by because of a lowered amount of dopamine in the brain. Serotonin levels have something to do with this but its not clear how yet. At any rate, during sleep serotonin is one of the many chemical processes occurring, and a loss of sleep would be a huge damper on the amount of serotonin in the brain. The result, a sad face for the rest of the day.

You can read more about the article here:
http://www.sleepfoundation.org/alert/early-bed-cure-teen-depression

Early to Bed: A Cure for Teen Depression?

The National Sleep Foundation recently posted an article about the importance of sleep and its relation to depression in teens. It failed to give any real reasons why the lack of sleep would cause depression, but gave good statistical information on why depression and the lack of sleep in adolescence is correlated.

Here is some of what the article said:
"dolescents with a late bedtime (midnight or later) were 24 percent more likely to suffer from depression. Adolescents who reported sleeping less than 5 hours per night were 71 percent more likely to suffer from depression"


So what might be some of the causes for this? Well during sleep many different chemical processes are happening. Recently I read about how proteins called Sleep Regulatory Substances are produced by neurons in the brain and may be one of the causes for us to sleep. If we didn't sleep and take time to get rid of these proteins then we could feel groggy all day and of course be depressed. I tend to fall on the slightly older explanation that serotonin production is the cause of this depressive behavior.

Though recently an article was released where depression is thought to be no longer caused by the depletion of serotonin in the brain by because of a lowered amount of dopamine in the brain. Serotonin levels have something to do with this but its not clear how yet. At any rate, during sleep serotonin is one of the many chemical processes occurring, and a loss of sleep would be a huge damper on the amount of serotonin in the brain. The result, a sad face for the rest of the day.

You can read more about the article here:
http://www.sleepfoundation.org/alert/early-bed-cure-teen-depression

Monday, January 25, 2010

Glia Cells and Sleep

Richard sent me a great article about some new understandings into what causes our sleepy minds to wonder off into the wonderful world of dreaming. It’s really the only explanation that has given me a real logical reason for sleeping, besides the common explanation of “we just don’t know.”
The paper “Sleep as a fundamental property of neuronal assemblies” written by James Krueger, David Rector, Hans Van Dongen, Gregory Belenky, Jaak Panksepp and electrical engineer Sandip Roy goes into a new approach to the reasons why we sleep. They say that sleep is based on a accumulation of proteins called Sleep Regulatory Substances which is produced by the glia cells in the brain. The glia cells react with ATP which is released due to chemical communication in the brain and end up producing the proteins.

Though there are many other parts to the article, the explanation for the cause of sleep is most interesting to me. It makes sense that thinking, or some type of action is what causes sleep, not just an un-explanatory process that just happened for no reason. The article also talks about the process of sleep as possibly not always being a full fledged episode of sleeping. Meaning that different area of the brain may sleep at different times.

You can check out the article at: http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/546211/

Glia Cells and Sleep

Richard sent me a great article about some new understandings into what causes our sleepy minds to wonder off into the wonderful world of dreaming. It’s really the only explanation that has given me a real logical reason for sleeping, besides the common explanation of “we just don’t know.”
The paper “Sleep as a fundamental property of neuronal assemblies” written by James Krueger, David Rector, Hans Van Dongen, Gregory Belenky, Jaak Panksepp and electrical engineer Sandip Roy goes into a new approach to the reasons why we sleep. They say that sleep is based on a accumulation of proteins called Sleep Regulatory Substances which is produced by the glia cells in the brain. The glia cells react with ATP which is released due to chemical communication in the brain and end up producing the proteins.

Though there are many other parts to the article, the explanation for the cause of sleep is most interesting to me. It makes sense that thinking, or some type of action is what causes sleep, not just an un-explanatory process that just happened for no reason. The article also talks about the process of sleep as possibly not always being a full fledged episode of sleeping. Meaning that different area of the brain may sleep at different times.

You can check out the article at: http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/546211/

Glia Cells and Sleep

Richard sent me a great article about some new understandings into what causes our sleepy minds to wonder off into the wonderful world of dreaming. It’s really the only explanation that has given me a real logical reason for sleeping, besides the common explanation of “we just don’t know.”
The paper “Sleep as a fundamental property of neuronal assemblies” written by James Krueger, David Rector, Hans Van Dongen, Gregory Belenky, Jaak Panksepp and electrical engineer Sandip Roy goes into a new approach to the reasons why we sleep. They say that sleep is based on a accumulation of proteins called Sleep Regulatory Substances which is produced by the glia cells in the brain. The glia cells react with ATP which is released due to chemical communication in the brain and end up producing the proteins.

Though there are many other parts to the article, the explanation for the cause of sleep is most interesting to me. It makes sense that thinking, or some type of action is what causes sleep, not just an un-explanatory process that just happened for no reason. The article also talks about the process of sleep as possibly not always being a full fledged episode of sleeping. Meaning that different area of the brain may sleep at different times.

You can check out the article at: http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/546211/

The Antipodes of the Mind

Over the last semester of college I had a great opportunity to read one of the most in-depth books about Ayahuasca that has been published. Benny Shanon is considered an expert on the subject of Ayahuasca as he has partaken in many different types of rituals that included over 250 accounts and placed them all into the book, The Antipodes of the Mind. That’s impressive in any situation. He also composed the many different culture experiences of those who partook in the experiences as well, including over 2500 accounts and categorized them in a more scientific manner.

Though the book was intensively focused on the uses of Ayahuasca, for the average reader the book was not as entertaining as I would have thought. It did however contain a lot of information about the uses of Ayahuasca and what individuals may and have experienced while intoxicated. The book does meet its mission in the aspect that it does provide a scientific statistical way of displaying the data of what types of experiences a person could have.

If you are interested in understanding more about Ayahuasca use, but do not want to read a inspirational personal account of the experience The Antipodes of the Mind is the book for you. I highly suggest it for those who are more experienced readers in the area of Ayahuasca and other types of psychoactive substances.

The Antipodes of the Mind

Over the last semester of college I had a great opportunity to read one of the most in-depth books about Ayahuasca that has been published. Benny Shanon is considered an expert on the subject of Ayahuasca as he has partaken in many different types of rituals that included over 250 accounts and placed them all into the book, The Antipodes of the Mind. That’s impressive in any situation. He also composed the many different culture experiences of those who partook in the experiences as well, including over 2500 accounts and categorized them in a more scientific manner.

Though the book was intensively focused on the uses of Ayahuasca, for the average reader the book was not as entertaining as I would have thought. It did however contain a lot of information about the uses of Ayahuasca and what individuals may and have experienced while intoxicated. The book does meet its mission in the aspect that it does provide a scientific statistical way of displaying the data of what types of experiences a person could have.

If you are interested in understanding more about Ayahuasca use, but do not want to read a inspirational personal account of the experience The Antipodes of the Mind is the book for you. I highly suggest it for those who are more experienced readers in the area of Ayahuasca and other types of psychoactive substances.

The Antipodes of the Mind

Over the last semester of college I had a great opportunity to read one of the most in-depth books about Ayahuasca that has been published. Benny Shanon is considered an expert on the subject of Ayahuasca as he has partaken in many different types of rituals that included over 250 accounts and placed them all into the book, The Antipodes of the Mind. That’s impressive in any situation. He also composed the many different culture experiences of those who partook in the experiences as well, including over 2500 accounts and categorized them in a more scientific manner.

Though the book was intensively focused on the uses of Ayahuasca, for the average reader the book was not as entertaining as I would have thought. It did however contain a lot of information about the uses of Ayahuasca and what individuals may and have experienced while intoxicated. The book does meet its mission in the aspect that it does provide a scientific statistical way of displaying the data of what types of experiences a person could have.

If you are interested in understanding more about Ayahuasca use, but do not want to read a inspirational personal account of the experience The Antipodes of the Mind is the book for you. I highly suggest it for those who are more experienced readers in the area of Ayahuasca and other types of psychoactive substances.

Sleep Paralysis Treatment – Dreams of Being Held Down

Ryan over at DreamStudies.org posted information about sleep paralysis and some good news about current treatments that are being done. He says he will post more about the current options, but leaves us with some good information of what sleep paralysis is. Sleep paralysis being one of the hot topics in my life and on this blog, its an important item to understand when dealing with lucid dreaming, and sleep in general. Here is some of what he has to say:


Sleep Paralysis is a troubling sleep condition that is deeply misunderstood in our culture. Experienced by millions as an incubus attack or being “ridden by a witch,” sleep paralysis (SP) has biological causes that are related to sleep hygiene, stress, and insomnia.

Sleep Paralysis Treatment – Dreams of Being Held Down

Ryan over at DreamStudies.org posted information about sleep paralysis and some good news about current treatments that are being done. He says he will post more about the current options, but leaves us with some good information of what sleep paralysis is. Sleep paralysis being one of the hot topics in my life and on this blog, its an important item to understand when dealing with lucid dreaming, and sleep in general. Here is some of what he has to say:


Sleep Paralysis is a troubling sleep condition that is deeply misunderstood in our culture. Experienced by millions as an incubus attack or being “ridden by a witch,” sleep paralysis (SP) has biological causes that are related to sleep hygiene, stress, and insomnia.

Sleep Paralysis Treatment – Dreams of Being Held Down

Ryan over at DreamStudies.org posted information about sleep paralysis and some good news about current treatments that are being done. He says he will post more about the current options, but leaves us with some good information of what sleep paralysis is. Sleep paralysis being one of the hot topics in my life and on this blog, its an important item to understand when dealing with lucid dreaming, and sleep in general. Here is some of what he has to say:


Sleep Paralysis is a troubling sleep condition that is deeply misunderstood in our culture. Experienced by millions as an incubus attack or being “ridden by a witch,” sleep paralysis (SP) has biological causes that are related to sleep hygiene, stress, and insomnia.

Wednesday, January 13, 2010

The Understanding of Consciousness

This was just a smaller paper that I wrote about what I think consciousness is all about. It's not the best write up but since I haven't posted anything for ages I figured it was about time to get something out to the public. Hope you enjoy and helps you to think more about the wonderful world of the brain.

Abstract

Throughout history the consciousness has been a questioning concept. It has been thought to be located in different areas of the human body and recently ended up being in the human brain. With more research being conducted it should be considered that the human mind is not the only location where consciousness flows from, and that there are many different types of consciousness. From the stomach and the heart, to the brain and its many different parts, consciousness has a large spectrum of input and alterations that create the experience of the human self.

History
The understanding of consciousness is something that humans have always wondered about. Philosophers like Socrates and Plato argued that there were three levels to consciousness, while Descartes would describe the seat of the soul being a part of the brain called the pineal gland (Norden, 2007).

In ancient civilizations such as Egypt the pharos brains were to be disregarded, while their heart was kept for the afterlife as it was regarded as the seat of consciousness (Norden, 2007). Even at the time of the Greeks, Aristotle still considered the heart to be the epicenter of cognition. It was up until the renaissance that consciousness shifted from the heart to the brain (Norden, 2007).

Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci believed that the ventricles in the brain were the cause of cognition, as the French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes believed that the pineal gland in the brain was the seat of the soul (Norden, 2007). Still it wasn’t until the 17th century when Tomas Willis who produced some of the most comprehensive drawings of the brain as well as treated people who had brain disorders that it was believed that the all of the body’s movement and cognition was located in the brain formations (Norden, 2007). It is for this reason that Dr. Willis is considered to be the father of neuroscience (Norden, 2007).

Since the 17th century science has produced more accurate models of what creates consciousness in the human experience, but we still have yet to explain what is consciousness and where does it come from. In order to understand the complexity of the subject we need to review the sheer complexity of the human mind.

Complexity

The average human brain contains about 100 billion neurons and using The Neuron Doctrine for a model of communication for those neurons, the brain has over a 100 trillion synapses to transmit information across (Norden, 2007). There are over 40 neurotransmitters that are know of that are used in order to transmit information across those synapses and scientists are continually finding more (Norden, 2007). It was recently discovered that synapses are also not static in what neurotransmitter is used for communication; this means that synapses and dendrites are able to temporarily accept and send different chemical neurotransmitters in order to send and receive information (Norden, 2007). What this all means is that the brain is the most complex system of communication that is known to man. Even in recent years neuroscientist still has little idea on how these neurons know what compounds to send as communication neurotransmitters but what scientist have been starting to understand is that the brain is not a just one big organ. The brain is a complex series of different organs together making up our sensory experience (Norden, 2007). Scientists know this because they have studied individuals who have had disorders of the brain and have changed their behavior based on the area of the brain being affected. This change that occurs, changes how the person thinks about themselves and the world around them, ultimately changing what conscious thought they had before.

Loss of Consciousness

In order to understand the complexity of consciousness scientists have been studying different ways in which consciousness has been altered. Like causing a dysfunction in a specific area of the brain for understanding different areas of the brains functions, forcibly changing someone’s consciousness has allowed for scientists to see what areas of the brain are required to be functional in order for consciousness to occur. Studying individuals in different sleep stages has also allowed for understanding of the human mind in altered states as well as the realization of different forms of consciousness.

Dreaming Consciousness

During the REM phase of sleep it was thought by Sigmund Freud that the brain was under the control of the sub-consciousness (Hobson, 2002). Allen Hobson, one of the most educated individuals in the area of sleep research, would say that the brain has no control of any kind during the sleep phase, that any type of dream is accidental (Hobson, 2002). From personal experience as well as well documented dream experiences we can see that neither Freud nor Hobson are correct, as dreams sometimes have personal subconscious meaning, as well as no meaning at all. We can further understand this subject by talking about another form of dreaming, lucid dreaming.

According to recent study on lucid dreaming, lucid dreaming is not dreaming at all, rather it’s been claimed to be another form of consciousness, such that you are neither awake, nor dreaming (Hurd, 2009). Lucid dreaming is an experience where the individual experiencing a dream becomes aware that they are dreaming (Laberg, 1997). The real fascinating part of this occurrence is the ability to obtain full awareness while dream content continues to be experienced making seem as though two consciousness are controlling the experience, the conscious individual and the dream narrator. During the sleep phase, different areas of the brain are modulated on due to the cholergenic REM (Rapid Eye Movement) on system and off due to the serotonin REM off (hobson, 2002). Because of these two different systems, different areas of the brain are also disengaged or modulated in order for the body to experience sleep. In result the subject asleep feels different then they were before. They may not remember the experiences while they are asleep, they may not notice things are out of place, and they may not be able to move in their dreams. In contrast to dreaming and lucid dreaming, the person becomes aware, and is able to remember all of their experience, even able to purposely interact with dream characters and objects. We can see that the brain has modulated itself in another way during this state. The process of dream formation and modulation is triggered by the reticular formation located throughout the brainstem which has large influence on the thalamus and cortex of the brain (Norden, 2007). The thalamus then relays information to the cortex which results in the dream experience (Norden, 2007).

Lucid dreaming normally occurs during REM cycle, but even another type of lucid dreaming is being explored that occurs more often in stage 2 of sleep which children often experience night terrors, and adults experience nightmares or the old hag syndrome (Hufford, 1982). Also during this time frame individuals have experienced super lucid dreaming or sometimes referred to as Out of Body Experiences (Laberg, 1997). During this stage of consciousness, the individual is fully aware of his or her surroundings but somehow unable to determine what is real or fantasy. In most cases the individual is awoken in their room or place of sleep while performing a normal nightly function such as going to the bathroom and coming back to their bed relieved unnoticing to the fact that they were really dreaming. Individuals that experience this state of consciousness in a lab setting have been seen to have their eyes open but are fully in stage 2 of sleep. Hypnotic hallucinations seem to follow this area of sleep and since the dreaming is occurring as such an early state of sleep, the amygdalae is still overly activated causing strong emotion most commonly fear (Hobson, 2002). In result most super lucid states are preceded by some type of nightmarish hallucination.
During super lucid dreaming the consciousness is once again altered in some way, making it so that the dreaming is unable to awake from the dream, causing them to experience dream characters and a dream environment. Unlike normal lucid dreaming states the thalamus seems to be modulated the brain in a different way, allowing for clear understanding of the surroundings. This could be because the possible still partially activation of the serotonin REM off system.

Drug Induced Consciousness

Much like dreaming, drug induced altered consciousness has many of the same factors contributing to the experience of hallucinations. With psychedelics the individual experiences dream like narration where they have the conscious self and many different dream characters which in doughtily are another aspect of the self (Shanon, 2002). Since not much research has been done in the United States on the use of psychedelics, it is assumed that many of the same areas of the brain are activated in some way as they are in dreaming, however due to individuals clarity and memory of the experience, super lucid dreaming model is a more realistic prospective of the experience (Shanon, 2002).

Other forms of Consciousness

There have been recent studies done on the stomach and how it communicates with the brain. According to the chairman of the department of anatomy and cell biology at Columbia, the stomach contains about 75% of the total amount of neurotransmitter serotonin in the body and sends the serotonin to the brain as a form of communication, It is all probable that the neurons in the stomach act much like the neurons in the brain and are able to communicate some type of processes to the brain much like any area of the brain (Brown, 2005). For this reason it can be hypothesized that other parts of the human body that contains a substantial amount of neurons may be able in some way to impact consciousness. This theory is further supported by how some indigenous tribes from around the world have tradition where they believe the stomach to be the center of emotion much like the heart in other cultures. It is also interesting that the heart is thought to contain a microscopic cluster of neurons that much like the stomach relays information to the brain rather than the brain to the heart (Madurasinghe, 2008). It could be said that this gives rise to the reasons that for such a long period of time, culture believed cognition was in other areas of the body other than the brain.

Consciousness Redefined

Consciousness is not a static object. It constantly changes with its involvement of memories; areas of the brain currently modulated or demodulated, and only seem to stop responding when an individual has no more brain function only due to reticular formation damage. Consciousness can be experienced by the same individual different ways through hypnosis, dreaming, drug alterations, and dysfunctions of the brain. During those experiences, would we say that the person that is experiencing those events is the same person? The answer is of course yes, but just a different aspect of that person. It is for this reason that it should be proposed that consciousness is not located in just one area of the human mind, but many different areas. Consciousness seems to be a joint effort or many different areas of the brain in phase with another, creating the individual and individual’s experience. Individuals with disorders where they experience schizophrenia are simply experiencing another out of phase interaction with a different number of neurons or areas of the brain. Like schizophrenia or multiple personality disorder the same experience is depicted during the dreaming process. The only real difference is that the person is awake and under normal circumstances, the phasing in of neurons would not happen. Talking to one’s self is also a good depiction of one area of the brain being in phase and another being in a different phase as two different thought processes are taking place at the same time. They are two different consciousnesses speaking together in order to create the world around them as like in dreaming with the narrator effect.

Conclusions

The current understanding of the complexity of the brain and the ability of the brain bypass our experimental ability. Because of this we are unable to understand how the brain works in my different areas, consciousness being one of those. In order to further to expand on what we currently know about consciousness there needs to be some type of movement in the direction of altered consciousness studies. These studies can be done with further lucid dreaming experimentations, drug induced alterations, or with individuals whose disorders demonstrate consciousness type disorders. This area of study is important in understanding why humans act the way they do and think the way they do.

References

Brown, H. (2005, August 23). The other Brain also deals with many woes . The Other Brain Also Deals With Many Woes , Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/23/health/23gut.html?_r=2

European Science Foundation (2009, July 29). New Links Between Lucid Dreaming And Psychosis Could Revive Dream Therapy In Psychiatry. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 7, 2009, from http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2009/07/090728184831.htm

Hobson, A. J. (2002). The Dream Drugstore: Chemically Altered States of Consciousness. MIT Press.

Hufford, D. (1982). The Terror that comes in the night . Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Hurd, R. (2009, September 19). Lucid dreaming: a hybrid of rem and waking cognition. Retrieved from http://dreamstudies.org/2009/09/18/lucid-dreaming-hybrid-gamma-biurnal-beats/#more-1343

LaBerg, Stephen, & Rheingold, Howard (1997). Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming.Ballantine Books.

Madurasinghe, L. (2008, June 15). The other Brain also deals with many woes . The Other Brain Also Deals With Many Woes , Retrieved from http://madurasinghe.blogspot.com/2008/06/neurocardiology-brain-in-heart.html

Norden, J. (2007). Understanding the brain. Westfields, VA: The Teaching Company.

Shanon, B. (2002). The Antipodes of the mind. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. (Shanon, 2002)

The Understanding of Consciousness

This was just a smaller paper that I wrote about what I think consciousness is all about. It's not the best write up but since I haven't posted anything for ages I figured it was about time to get something out to the public. Hope you enjoy and helps you to think more about the wonderful world of the brain.

Abstract

Throughout history the consciousness has been a questioning concept. It has been thought to be located in different areas of the human body and recently ended up being in the human brain. With more research being conducted it should be considered that the human mind is not the only location where consciousness flows from, and that there are many different types of consciousness. From the stomach and the heart, to the brain and its many different parts, consciousness has a large spectrum of input and alterations that create the experience of the human self.

History
The understanding of consciousness is something that humans have always wondered about. Philosophers like Socrates and Plato argued that there were three levels to consciousness, while Descartes would describe the seat of the soul being a part of the brain called the pineal gland (Norden, 2007).

In ancient civilizations such as Egypt the pharos brains were to be disregarded, while their heart was kept for the afterlife as it was regarded as the seat of consciousness (Norden, 2007). Even at the time of the Greeks, Aristotle still considered the heart to be the epicenter of cognition. It was up until the renaissance that consciousness shifted from the heart to the brain (Norden, 2007).

Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci believed that the ventricles in the brain were the cause of cognition, as the French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes believed that the pineal gland in the brain was the seat of the soul (Norden, 2007). Still it wasn’t until the 17th century when Tomas Willis who produced some of the most comprehensive drawings of the brain as well as treated people who had brain disorders that it was believed that the all of the body’s movement and cognition was located in the brain formations (Norden, 2007). It is for this reason that Dr. Willis is considered to be the father of neuroscience (Norden, 2007).

Since the 17th century science has produced more accurate models of what creates consciousness in the human experience, but we still have yet to explain what is consciousness and where does it come from. In order to understand the complexity of the subject we need to review the sheer complexity of the human mind.

Complexity

The average human brain contains about 100 billion neurons and using The Neuron Doctrine for a model of communication for those neurons, the brain has over a 100 trillion synapses to transmit information across (Norden, 2007). There are over 40 neurotransmitters that are know of that are used in order to transmit information across those synapses and scientists are continually finding more (Norden, 2007). It was recently discovered that synapses are also not static in what neurotransmitter is used for communication; this means that synapses and dendrites are able to temporarily accept and send different chemical neurotransmitters in order to send and receive information (Norden, 2007). What this all means is that the brain is the most complex system of communication that is known to man. Even in recent years neuroscientist still has little idea on how these neurons know what compounds to send as communication neurotransmitters but what scientist have been starting to understand is that the brain is not a just one big organ. The brain is a complex series of different organs together making up our sensory experience (Norden, 2007). Scientists know this because they have studied individuals who have had disorders of the brain and have changed their behavior based on the area of the brain being affected. This change that occurs, changes how the person thinks about themselves and the world around them, ultimately changing what conscious thought they had before.

Loss of Consciousness

In order to understand the complexity of consciousness scientists have been studying different ways in which consciousness has been altered. Like causing a dysfunction in a specific area of the brain for understanding different areas of the brains functions, forcibly changing someone’s consciousness has allowed for scientists to see what areas of the brain are required to be functional in order for consciousness to occur. Studying individuals in different sleep stages has also allowed for understanding of the human mind in altered states as well as the realization of different forms of consciousness.

Dreaming Consciousness

During the REM phase of sleep it was thought by Sigmund Freud that the brain was under the control of the sub-consciousness (Hobson, 2002). Allen Hobson, one of the most educated individuals in the area of sleep research, would say that the brain has no control of any kind during the sleep phase, that any type of dream is accidental (Hobson, 2002). From personal experience as well as well documented dream experiences we can see that neither Freud nor Hobson are correct, as dreams sometimes have personal subconscious meaning, as well as no meaning at all. We can further understand this subject by talking about another form of dreaming, lucid dreaming.

According to recent study on lucid dreaming, lucid dreaming is not dreaming at all, rather it’s been claimed to be another form of consciousness, such that you are neither awake, nor dreaming (Hurd, 2009). Lucid dreaming is an experience where the individual experiencing a dream becomes aware that they are dreaming (Laberg, 1997). The real fascinating part of this occurrence is the ability to obtain full awareness while dream content continues to be experienced making seem as though two consciousness are controlling the experience, the conscious individual and the dream narrator. During the sleep phase, different areas of the brain are modulated on due to the cholergenic REM (Rapid Eye Movement) on system and off due to the serotonin REM off (hobson, 2002). Because of these two different systems, different areas of the brain are also disengaged or modulated in order for the body to experience sleep. In result the subject asleep feels different then they were before. They may not remember the experiences while they are asleep, they may not notice things are out of place, and they may not be able to move in their dreams. In contrast to dreaming and lucid dreaming, the person becomes aware, and is able to remember all of their experience, even able to purposely interact with dream characters and objects. We can see that the brain has modulated itself in another way during this state. The process of dream formation and modulation is triggered by the reticular formation located throughout the brainstem which has large influence on the thalamus and cortex of the brain (Norden, 2007). The thalamus then relays information to the cortex which results in the dream experience (Norden, 2007).

Lucid dreaming normally occurs during REM cycle, but even another type of lucid dreaming is being explored that occurs more often in stage 2 of sleep which children often experience night terrors, and adults experience nightmares or the old hag syndrome (Hufford, 1982). Also during this time frame individuals have experienced super lucid dreaming or sometimes referred to as Out of Body Experiences (Laberg, 1997). During this stage of consciousness, the individual is fully aware of his or her surroundings but somehow unable to determine what is real or fantasy. In most cases the individual is awoken in their room or place of sleep while performing a normal nightly function such as going to the bathroom and coming back to their bed relieved unnoticing to the fact that they were really dreaming. Individuals that experience this state of consciousness in a lab setting have been seen to have their eyes open but are fully in stage 2 of sleep. Hypnotic hallucinations seem to follow this area of sleep and since the dreaming is occurring as such an early state of sleep, the amygdalae is still overly activated causing strong emotion most commonly fear (Hobson, 2002). In result most super lucid states are preceded by some type of nightmarish hallucination.
During super lucid dreaming the consciousness is once again altered in some way, making it so that the dreaming is unable to awake from the dream, causing them to experience dream characters and a dream environment. Unlike normal lucid dreaming states the thalamus seems to be modulated the brain in a different way, allowing for clear understanding of the surroundings. This could be because the possible still partially activation of the serotonin REM off system.

Drug Induced Consciousness

Much like dreaming, drug induced altered consciousness has many of the same factors contributing to the experience of hallucinations. With psychedelics the individual experiences dream like narration where they have the conscious self and many different dream characters which in doughtily are another aspect of the self (Shanon, 2002). Since not much research has been done in the United States on the use of psychedelics, it is assumed that many of the same areas of the brain are activated in some way as they are in dreaming, however due to individuals clarity and memory of the experience, super lucid dreaming model is a more realistic prospective of the experience (Shanon, 2002).

Other forms of Consciousness

There have been recent studies done on the stomach and how it communicates with the brain. According to the chairman of the department of anatomy and cell biology at Columbia, the stomach contains about 75% of the total amount of neurotransmitter serotonin in the body and sends the serotonin to the brain as a form of communication, It is all probable that the neurons in the stomach act much like the neurons in the brain and are able to communicate some type of processes to the brain much like any area of the brain (Brown, 2005). For this reason it can be hypothesized that other parts of the human body that contains a substantial amount of neurons may be able in some way to impact consciousness. This theory is further supported by how some indigenous tribes from around the world have tradition where they believe the stomach to be the center of emotion much like the heart in other cultures. It is also interesting that the heart is thought to contain a microscopic cluster of neurons that much like the stomach relays information to the brain rather than the brain to the heart (Madurasinghe, 2008). It could be said that this gives rise to the reasons that for such a long period of time, culture believed cognition was in other areas of the body other than the brain.

Consciousness Redefined

Consciousness is not a static object. It constantly changes with its involvement of memories; areas of the brain currently modulated or demodulated, and only seem to stop responding when an individual has no more brain function only due to reticular formation damage. Consciousness can be experienced by the same individual different ways through hypnosis, dreaming, drug alterations, and dysfunctions of the brain. During those experiences, would we say that the person that is experiencing those events is the same person? The answer is of course yes, but just a different aspect of that person. It is for this reason that it should be proposed that consciousness is not located in just one area of the human mind, but many different areas. Consciousness seems to be a joint effort or many different areas of the brain in phase with another, creating the individual and individual’s experience. Individuals with disorders where they experience schizophrenia are simply experiencing another out of phase interaction with a different number of neurons or areas of the brain. Like schizophrenia or multiple personality disorder the same experience is depicted during the dreaming process. The only real difference is that the person is awake and under normal circumstances, the phasing in of neurons would not happen. Talking to one’s self is also a good depiction of one area of the brain being in phase and another being in a different phase as two different thought processes are taking place at the same time. They are two different consciousnesses speaking together in order to create the world around them as like in dreaming with the narrator effect.

Conclusions

The current understanding of the complexity of the brain and the ability of the brain bypass our experimental ability. Because of this we are unable to understand how the brain works in my different areas, consciousness being one of those. In order to further to expand on what we currently know about consciousness there needs to be some type of movement in the direction of altered consciousness studies. These studies can be done with further lucid dreaming experimentations, drug induced alterations, or with individuals whose disorders demonstrate consciousness type disorders. This area of study is important in understanding why humans act the way they do and think the way they do.

References

Brown, H. (2005, August 23). The other Brain also deals with many woes . The Other Brain Also Deals With Many Woes , Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/23/health/23gut.html?_r=2

European Science Foundation (2009, July 29). New Links Between Lucid Dreaming And Psychosis Could Revive Dream Therapy In Psychiatry. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 7, 2009, from http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2009/07/090728184831.htm

Hobson, A. J. (2002). The Dream Drugstore: Chemically Altered States of Consciousness. MIT Press.

Hufford, D. (1982). The Terror that comes in the night . Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Hurd, R. (2009, September 19). Lucid dreaming: a hybrid of rem and waking cognition. Retrieved from http://dreamstudies.org/2009/09/18/lucid-dreaming-hybrid-gamma-biurnal-beats/#more-1343

LaBerg, Stephen, & Rheingold, Howard (1997). Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming.Ballantine Books.

Madurasinghe, L. (2008, June 15). The other Brain also deals with many woes . The Other Brain Also Deals With Many Woes , Retrieved from http://madurasinghe.blogspot.com/2008/06/neurocardiology-brain-in-heart.html

Norden, J. (2007). Understanding the brain. Westfields, VA: The Teaching Company.

Shanon, B. (2002). The Antipodes of the mind. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. (Shanon, 2002)

The Understanding of Consciousness

This was just a smaller paper that I wrote about what I think consciousness is all about. It's not the best write up but since I haven't posted anything for ages I figured it was about time to get something out to the public. Hope you enjoy and helps you to think more about the wonderful world of the brain.

Abstract

Throughout history the consciousness has been a questioning concept. It has been thought to be located in different areas of the human body and recently ended up being in the human brain. With more research being conducted it should be considered that the human mind is not the only location where consciousness flows from, and that there are many different types of consciousness. From the stomach and the heart, to the brain and its many different parts, consciousness has a large spectrum of input and alterations that create the experience of the human self.

History
The understanding of consciousness is something that humans have always wondered about. Philosophers like Socrates and Plato argued that there were three levels to consciousness, while Descartes would describe the seat of the soul being a part of the brain called the pineal gland (Norden, 2007).

In ancient civilizations such as Egypt the pharos brains were to be disregarded, while their heart was kept for the afterlife as it was regarded as the seat of consciousness (Norden, 2007). Even at the time of the Greeks, Aristotle still considered the heart to be the epicenter of cognition. It was up until the renaissance that consciousness shifted from the heart to the brain (Norden, 2007).

Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci believed that the ventricles in the brain were the cause of cognition, as the French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes believed that the pineal gland in the brain was the seat of the soul (Norden, 2007). Still it wasn’t until the 17th century when Tomas Willis who produced some of the most comprehensive drawings of the brain as well as treated people who had brain disorders that it was believed that the all of the body’s movement and cognition was located in the brain formations (Norden, 2007). It is for this reason that Dr. Willis is considered to be the father of neuroscience (Norden, 2007).

Since the 17th century science has produced more accurate models of what creates consciousness in the human experience, but we still have yet to explain what is consciousness and where does it come from. In order to understand the complexity of the subject we need to review the sheer complexity of the human mind.

Complexity

The average human brain contains about 100 billion neurons and using The Neuron Doctrine for a model of communication for those neurons, the brain has over a 100 trillion synapses to transmit information across (Norden, 2007). There are over 40 neurotransmitters that are know of that are used in order to transmit information across those synapses and scientists are continually finding more (Norden, 2007). It was recently discovered that synapses are also not static in what neurotransmitter is used for communication; this means that synapses and dendrites are able to temporarily accept and send different chemical neurotransmitters in order to send and receive information (Norden, 2007). What this all means is that the brain is the most complex system of communication that is known to man. Even in recent years neuroscientist still has little idea on how these neurons know what compounds to send as communication neurotransmitters but what scientist have been starting to understand is that the brain is not a just one big organ. The brain is a complex series of different organs together making up our sensory experience (Norden, 2007). Scientists know this because they have studied individuals who have had disorders of the brain and have changed their behavior based on the area of the brain being affected. This change that occurs, changes how the person thinks about themselves and the world around them, ultimately changing what conscious thought they had before.

Loss of Consciousness

In order to understand the complexity of consciousness scientists have been studying different ways in which consciousness has been altered. Like causing a dysfunction in a specific area of the brain for understanding different areas of the brains functions, forcibly changing someone’s consciousness has allowed for scientists to see what areas of the brain are required to be functional in order for consciousness to occur. Studying individuals in different sleep stages has also allowed for understanding of the human mind in altered states as well as the realization of different forms of consciousness.

Dreaming Consciousness

During the REM phase of sleep it was thought by Sigmund Freud that the brain was under the control of the sub-consciousness (Hobson, 2002). Allen Hobson, one of the most educated individuals in the area of sleep research, would say that the brain has no control of any kind during the sleep phase, that any type of dream is accidental (Hobson, 2002). From personal experience as well as well documented dream experiences we can see that neither Freud nor Hobson are correct, as dreams sometimes have personal subconscious meaning, as well as no meaning at all. We can further understand this subject by talking about another form of dreaming, lucid dreaming.

According to recent study on lucid dreaming, lucid dreaming is not dreaming at all, rather it’s been claimed to be another form of consciousness, such that you are neither awake, nor dreaming (Hurd, 2009). Lucid dreaming is an experience where the individual experiencing a dream becomes aware that they are dreaming (Laberg, 1997). The real fascinating part of this occurrence is the ability to obtain full awareness while dream content continues to be experienced making seem as though two consciousness are controlling the experience, the conscious individual and the dream narrator. During the sleep phase, different areas of the brain are modulated on due to the cholergenic REM (Rapid Eye Movement) on system and off due to the serotonin REM off (hobson, 2002). Because of these two different systems, different areas of the brain are also disengaged or modulated in order for the body to experience sleep. In result the subject asleep feels different then they were before. They may not remember the experiences while they are asleep, they may not notice things are out of place, and they may not be able to move in their dreams. In contrast to dreaming and lucid dreaming, the person becomes aware, and is able to remember all of their experience, even able to purposely interact with dream characters and objects. We can see that the brain has modulated itself in another way during this state. The process of dream formation and modulation is triggered by the reticular formation located throughout the brainstem which has large influence on the thalamus and cortex of the brain (Norden, 2007). The thalamus then relays information to the cortex which results in the dream experience (Norden, 2007).

Lucid dreaming normally occurs during REM cycle, but even another type of lucid dreaming is being explored that occurs more often in stage 2 of sleep which children often experience night terrors, and adults experience nightmares or the old hag syndrome (Hufford, 1982). Also during this time frame individuals have experienced super lucid dreaming or sometimes referred to as Out of Body Experiences (Laberg, 1997). During this stage of consciousness, the individual is fully aware of his or her surroundings but somehow unable to determine what is real or fantasy. In most cases the individual is awoken in their room or place of sleep while performing a normal nightly function such as going to the bathroom and coming back to their bed relieved unnoticing to the fact that they were really dreaming. Individuals that experience this state of consciousness in a lab setting have been seen to have their eyes open but are fully in stage 2 of sleep. Hypnotic hallucinations seem to follow this area of sleep and since the dreaming is occurring as such an early state of sleep, the amygdalae is still overly activated causing strong emotion most commonly fear (Hobson, 2002). In result most super lucid states are preceded by some type of nightmarish hallucination.
During super lucid dreaming the consciousness is once again altered in some way, making it so that the dreaming is unable to awake from the dream, causing them to experience dream characters and a dream environment. Unlike normal lucid dreaming states the thalamus seems to be modulated the brain in a different way, allowing for clear understanding of the surroundings. This could be because the possible still partially activation of the serotonin REM off system.

Drug Induced Consciousness

Much like dreaming, drug induced altered consciousness has many of the same factors contributing to the experience of hallucinations. With psychedelics the individual experiences dream like narration where they have the conscious self and many different dream characters which in doughtily are another aspect of the self (Shanon, 2002). Since not much research has been done in the United States on the use of psychedelics, it is assumed that many of the same areas of the brain are activated in some way as they are in dreaming, however due to individuals clarity and memory of the experience, super lucid dreaming model is a more realistic prospective of the experience (Shanon, 2002).

Other forms of Consciousness

There have been recent studies done on the stomach and how it communicates with the brain. According to the chairman of the department of anatomy and cell biology at Columbia, the stomach contains about 75% of the total amount of neurotransmitter serotonin in the body and sends the serotonin to the brain as a form of communication, It is all probable that the neurons in the stomach act much like the neurons in the brain and are able to communicate some type of processes to the brain much like any area of the brain (Brown, 2005). For this reason it can be hypothesized that other parts of the human body that contains a substantial amount of neurons may be able in some way to impact consciousness. This theory is further supported by how some indigenous tribes from around the world have tradition where they believe the stomach to be the center of emotion much like the heart in other cultures. It is also interesting that the heart is thought to contain a microscopic cluster of neurons that much like the stomach relays information to the brain rather than the brain to the heart (Madurasinghe, 2008). It could be said that this gives rise to the reasons that for such a long period of time, culture believed cognition was in other areas of the body other than the brain.

Consciousness Redefined

Consciousness is not a static object. It constantly changes with its involvement of memories; areas of the brain currently modulated or demodulated, and only seem to stop responding when an individual has no more brain function only due to reticular formation damage. Consciousness can be experienced by the same individual different ways through hypnosis, dreaming, drug alterations, and dysfunctions of the brain. During those experiences, would we say that the person that is experiencing those events is the same person? The answer is of course yes, but just a different aspect of that person. It is for this reason that it should be proposed that consciousness is not located in just one area of the human mind, but many different areas. Consciousness seems to be a joint effort or many different areas of the brain in phase with another, creating the individual and individual’s experience. Individuals with disorders where they experience schizophrenia are simply experiencing another out of phase interaction with a different number of neurons or areas of the brain. Like schizophrenia or multiple personality disorder the same experience is depicted during the dreaming process. The only real difference is that the person is awake and under normal circumstances, the phasing in of neurons would not happen. Talking to one’s self is also a good depiction of one area of the brain being in phase and another being in a different phase as two different thought processes are taking place at the same time. They are two different consciousnesses speaking together in order to create the world around them as like in dreaming with the narrator effect.

Conclusions

The current understanding of the complexity of the brain and the ability of the brain bypass our experimental ability. Because of this we are unable to understand how the brain works in my different areas, consciousness being one of those. In order to further to expand on what we currently know about consciousness there needs to be some type of movement in the direction of altered consciousness studies. These studies can be done with further lucid dreaming experimentations, drug induced alterations, or with individuals whose disorders demonstrate consciousness type disorders. This area of study is important in understanding why humans act the way they do and think the way they do.

References

Brown, H. (2005, August 23). The other Brain also deals with many woes . The Other Brain Also Deals With Many Woes , Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/23/health/23gut.html?_r=2

European Science Foundation (2009, July 29). New Links Between Lucid Dreaming And Psychosis Could Revive Dream Therapy In Psychiatry. ScienceDaily. Retrieved December 7, 2009, from http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2009/07/090728184831.htm

Hobson, A. J. (2002). The Dream Drugstore: Chemically Altered States of Consciousness. MIT Press.

Hufford, D. (1982). The Terror that comes in the night . Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Hurd, R. (2009, September 19). Lucid dreaming: a hybrid of rem and waking cognition. Retrieved from http://dreamstudies.org/2009/09/18/lucid-dreaming-hybrid-gamma-biurnal-beats/#more-1343

LaBerg, Stephen, & Rheingold, Howard (1997). Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming.Ballantine Books.

Madurasinghe, L. (2008, June 15). The other Brain also deals with many woes . The Other Brain Also Deals With Many Woes , Retrieved from http://madurasinghe.blogspot.com/2008/06/neurocardiology-brain-in-heart.html

Norden, J. (2007). Understanding the brain. Westfields, VA: The Teaching Company.

Shanon, B. (2002). The Antipodes of the mind. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. (Shanon, 2002)

Tuesday, January 5, 2010

Sleep Mentations and Other Cognitive Realities

Abstract




Humans have long been interested in the alteration of their consciousness. They have done so through a variety of means, including external chemicals, physical stressors and mental disciplines. Humans have also taken great care to pay attention to their dreams’ actions in which regularly provides an altered state in which the experience inadvertently interacts with their so called subconscious. No matter what path individuals take to reach these altered states, the states themselves bear striking similarities to one another. By understanding the baseline connections between the disassociation (change in normal consciousness) of individuals in both dreams and in the use of drugs, one may be able to understand the waking consciousness better or conscious altered type disorders. In the past, few researchers have suggested the connection between psychedelics and dreams, but due to lack in technological they were unable to test humans for such indigenous psychoactive drugs. Theses purposed hypothesis are becoming more and more popular as new technology and further research into the reasons for sleep and its chemical relationship to our minds become supported.
 
An Indigenous Hallucinogen the Possible Cause of Dreaming


 The reasons why we dream when we sleep has been a long debated question. Throughout history many theories have come into play, such as Sigmund Freud explaining dreaming as the sub consciousness expressing its repressed emotions (Hobson, 2002).Yet the question still arises of why dreams are so vivid, creative, and full of almost unexplainable confusing events.  Methods have been suggested to explain these phenomena by means of endogenous hallucinogens that are naturally produced by the body (Callaway, 1988). This relationship could be better explained by an identification of other correspondence within dreaming and hallucinogens. Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is one such hallucinogen as it’s indigenously produced in all mammals. Large amounts of DMT have been found to be produced by the lungs as well as the brain (Strassman et al., 2009).
The reasons for the production of DMT are unknown, but it has been hypothesized that dream states as well as altered forums of consciousness followed by visual that rely on the senses of the eyes and psychical hallucinations that rely on the tactile senses, are explained because of DMT as well. Because of the identification of DMT and its correspondence to the experiences that occur during intoxication, DMT is a quality candidate for the dreaming state that occurs during sleep (Callaway, 1988). In order to understand why DMT is such a high candidate for the dreaming state we need to understand the chemical processes that take place during sleep modualation and their relationship to DMT.

Sleep Modulation

 The mind prepares the body for sleep about 12 hours prior to the actual initiation of sleep onset (Barrett & McNamara, 2007). This transition is controlled by what is called the circadian rhythm, a brainstem-controlled mechanism for keeping time, heartbeat, heat control, and many other automatic functions (Barrett & McNamara, 2007). The one aspect of circadian rhythm that deals mainly with sleep is temperature control (Barrett & McNamara, 2007). Temperature control during the 24 hours cycle of the circadian rhythm allows our core temperature to change from cold to hot or hot to cold depending on the phase in the 24 hour cycle (Barrett & McNamara, 2007). During sleep onset our circadian rhythm automatically lowers the body’s core temperature using the body as a radiator. This change in temperature is one of the first signs of brainstem activation which precedes further activation and deactivation of specific brain areas during the 5 sleep stages. This process is later talked about in the activation deactivation section of this paper. The decrease in body temperature is greatly supported by the production of melatonin synthesized in the pineal gland in the brain (Callaway, 1988; Strassman, 2001) and shows that in relation to circadian rhythm, melatonin supports peak core body temperature drop at early morning hours when melatonin levels are highest (Strassman, 2001). Secretions of melatonin into the hypothalamus help in sustaining this process (Cramer, Rudolph, Consbruch, & Kendel, 1974). Sleep modulation specifically is broken up into two categories: Non-REM (NREM) and REM. NREM is broken up into 4 different stages: drowsiness, light sleep, deep sleep, and delta waves. REM represents the last of the sleep phases as stage 5 or Rapid Eye Movement (Yuschak, 2006). These phases are graphically depicted in figure 1.

<Figure 1>

Determining when these stages start and stop is an extremely difficult process since each phase transitions flawlessly into the next and sometimes seems similar to each other. One extremely complex stage of sleep, where the majority of our definition of dreaming comes from, is the REM stage. Although 80% of sleep is spent in the NREM phase (Barrett & McNamara, 2007), a particular amount of attention should be spent on the REM stage and transitional phases to REM since that is where the majority of dream like induced hallucinations occur and when melatonin along with other chemicals are produced in the highest amounts (Callaway, 1988).

Once activated by the circadian rhythm and supported by melatonin production, the brainstem starts to modulate the brain through physical activation or deactivation of specific areas (Hobson, 2002). These same changes that happen during the sleep transition of NREM to REM are apparent in the onset of all forms of altered consciousness as they ultimately rely on the brainstem for any physical changes in the brain (Hobson, 2002). This brainstem activation either modulates or demodulates different area of the brain depending on what type of activation signal is represented; either by external or indigenous chemical induction (Hobson, 2002).

Possibly one of the most complex stages of our sleep is REM. REM is characterized by the rapid side to side movement of the eyes and the paralysis experienced by the sleeper from the chin down (Yuschak, 2006). Rapid eye movement and dreaming is not limited only to the REM stage but is also experienced during the last stages of NREM or the transitional phase between NREM and REM. The average person experiences 25% of their dreams during the transition from NREM to REM (Hobson, 2002). NREM dreams are described by patients that experience them as less vivid and shorter than those experienced during REM sleep. The differences in intensity of dreams between these stages are attributed to the amount of time spent in sleep, or the length of time the brain has had to produce dream related chemicals. The processes of activation and deactivation of specific parts of the brain during NREM and REM transitions are graphically depicted in figure 2.

 <Figure 2>

Activation and Deactivation

The transition from NREM to REM is described by Allen Hobson and Robert McCarley in their proposed hypothesis of activation synthesis as a process of modulation and demodulation of specific areas of the brain in which dreams are produced (Barrett & McNamara, 2007; Hobson, 2002). This activation synthesis hypothesis builds its foundation on the concepts produced by the REM Dream Theory. In REM Dream Theory, specific neurotransmitters acetylcholine (ACh) and histamine REM on, as well as serotonin REM off cause either modulation or demodulation of the brainstem (Hobson, 2002). The activation synthesis theory states that during the transitional phase between NREM and REM sleep, the brainstem has already systematically deactivated the aminergic systems, which disengages the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and blocks muscle motor function via the pontine brainstem’s deactivation of the anterior horn cells. The now deactivated aminergic system results in the loss of the ability to process new memories, cognitive functions of the ego, and the paralysis that inhibits the acting out of dreams (Hobson, 2002). This deactivation accounts for the common occurrence of amnesia that many people experience during sleep, the inability to understand self and to recognize the bizarreness of dreams, as well as the inability to move which has been experienced by some lucid dreamers, night terror patients, and narcoleptic patients (Hobson, 2002) (Lucidology, 2008; Richard, 2006). This modulation of specific areas of the brain is due to the increase in acetylcholine and results from the activation of the cholergenic REM on system (Hobson, 2002).

Using Hobson’s activation synthesis theory as a model, we can understand the reasons for the type of dreams that are experienced during NREM phase 2, and REM stage 5 of sleep. We can also produce a theory of why dreams occur during sleep, due to the chemical process that occurs during sleep. These occurrences may be explained by the remarkable correlation between the pineal gland and the synthesis of specific neurotransmitters that may contain psychoactive properties.



Dreams and the Pineal Gland

Neurotransmitters are the basic communication tool between neurons as well as activators and deactivators of multiple functions. During sleep, a large amount of these neurotransmitters are being replenished in the form of serotonin. Not one neurotransmitter completes only one function, on the contrary they sometimes complete functions that are in opposition of each other and brain function, competing for a completed task (Hobson, 2002). The more research is conducted on sleep and dreams the easier it is to understand how complex and integrated with neurotransmitter function sleep really is. In dealing with sleep and dreams we can break neurotransmitters into two basic groups - the aminergic system, comprised of the neurotransmitters dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin, as well as the cholinergic system, composed of the neurotransmitters acetylecholine, and histamine. The process of how the aminergic and cholinergic systems function in sleep can be described as a REM-on and REM-off type switch (Hobson, 2002).

The pineal gland is a chemical production factory, either producing melatonin or serotonin depending on the presence of absence of light. In this process, light source information is relayed from the eyes via the optic nerves and results in the activation of synthesizers that either produces melatonin in the absence of light or serotonin in the presence of light, becoming the brains largest producer of serotonin. Also in the absence of light, other process are continued as melatonin is then processed into tryptamine and pinoline. Pinoline is a beta-carbolin called 6-Methoxytetrahydro-beta-carboline and acts as a monoamine oxidase-A inhibitor (MAOI) which in turn allows for the increases concentrations of serotonin (Callaway, 1988). The synthesis of tryptamines and pinoline is most dominate during the REM stage of sleep but also shows partial activation during NREM phases 2 as well as during highly stressful situations in animal and human lives (Strassman, 2001). In relation these stressful events, dreams also turn out to occur during this time. Some beta-carbolines and tryptamines have also been known to cause psychedelic hallucinations as they deal directly with brainstem modulation (Hobson, 2002; Callaway, 1988). Melatonin has also been reported as having hallucinogenic effects on the brain; however, recent studies have shown negative evidence of such a relationship and that the further chemical breakdown of the beta-carbolines and tryptamines from melatonin are the results of these experiences (Cramer, et al., 1974; Strassman, 2001). The buildup of these two known types of hallucinogens in the form of pinoline and tryptamines could easily explain the visual mentations experienced during specific pineal gland stimulation. Blinding of the nerve fibers from cervical ganglion and the pineal causing inactivation of the melatonin process has been suggested as a way to reduced waking hallucinations in schizophrenic syndromes and shows support towards the pineal glands involvement in dreams (Maurizi, 1985). The processes of chemical conversion inside the pineal gland during different stages of sleep and light interaction are graphically depicted in figure 3.



<Figure 3>

 Pineal Location in Relation to the Brain

The location of the pineal gland is also very important in supporting how an indigenous psychedelic excretion from this gland would cause the described effects of dreaming. The pineal gland is located directly over the colliculi and is surrounded by the limbic system (Strassman, 2001). If hallucinogenic chemicals excreted from the pineal gland, the result could be a barrage of emotional thoughts with respect to the involvement of the limbic system and a combination of audio and visual alterations in the colliculi experienced during dreaming. Due to the position of the pineal gland, blood flow is not necessary for the transfer of hallucinogens to the regions of the brain most affected. It can be assumed then, a type of dreaming could occur at the point of death in the patient and possibly explaining out of body experiences and other religious experiences due to the interaction of the pineal produced chemicals and the brain.

The question still presents itself of what indigenous tryptamine based psychedelic would produce such dreams since beta-carboline pinoline may be psychedelic in nature but most likely not potent enough to cause full blown psychedelic experiences as experienced in dreams. It has been hypothesized that the indigenous psychedelic Di-methyle-trypamine (DMT) and LSD-25 could be the answer (Shulgin & Shulgin, 1991).
DMT, LSD-25, and Other Psychedelics

 
Understanding the different key precursors needed to make indigenous DMT and LSD-25 is an important part in understanding why the pineal gland has been selected as a possible production tool for tryptamine based psychedelics. The pineal gland, in addition to having its serotonin production properties also has the highest concentration of serotonin in the body (Strassman, 2001). Methyltransferases are necessary enzymes that have the ability to convert serotonin, melatonin, or tryptamine into psychedelics by methylating them (Strassman, 2001). Pinoline as well as other beta-carbolines may support this process by inhibiting the breakdown and extending the effects of tryptamine based psychedelics. With the abundance of serotonin, the transforming based methyltransferases, and the amplification ability of beta-carbolines, the pineal gland is one of the most logical places for indigenous DMT synthesis (Strassman, 2001). Also chemically similar to melatonin is LSD-25, which relates specifically to the activity on the raphe nucleus (a control center for serotonin release) (Maurizi, 1985; Hobson, 2002). Few studies into the relationship of the formation of DMT or LSD-25 in the pineal gland have been conducted; however, indigenous DMT has still been found in the lungs and brain of humans.

Though DMT, LSD-25, and other psychedelic drugs are similar in structure, the effects of these drugs are sometimes dramatically different. These differences are based on the individual as well as the environment of the individual taking the drug. A few instances have occurred where the same psychedelic trip has been described by different people taking the same drug. The amount of drug administered is also another key factor in how the effects of the drugs will be experienced. Dreams seem to follow the same trend as psychedelic as they are normally random and differ in intensity from dream to dream and person to person as well as setting. Vividness as well as intensity of the dream also increases with the amount of sleep the individual receives. This is due to the longer lengths of REM sleep as well as if they have a fully active pineal gland. With these common experiences, it is easy justify a relationship between dreams, psychedelic experiences, and the pineal gland.

Discussion
Using psychedelic experiences as a model for dreams we can explore the effects of altered states of mind while subjects are fully conscious. Further research into this field could give scientist a better understanding of the subconscious minds true intent in altered states as well as possibly answering the question of why dreams occur. Research into understanding the true purpose of the pineal gland and its production of indigenous tryptamine based psychedelics may also help in understanding sleep disorders such as night terrors, sleep paralysis, and narcolepsy. This type of research should be conducted in a controlled environment to increase manipulation of the dependent variables and maximizing the authority of such research. Development of more sensitive testing assay for indigenous psychedelic drugs allowing for baseline values in normal patients should be developed before future research is conducted.

Though DMT is a great candidate for the explanation of why dreams occur, there is still little correlative data that can support this theory.  In Callaway’s article, he proposes that further research be conducted on the levels of beta-carbolines in the spinal fluid during the sleep wake cycles (Callaway, 1988). Another suggestion by Strassman has been to measure DMT levels in the blood during the same sleep wake cycles; however no accurate measurement tool has been created (Strassman et al., 2009). Currently, measurement tools are being researched and created by a group of individuals at the Louisiana State University (Onerology, 2009).
 

References
Barrett, D., & McNamara, P. (2007). The New Science of Dreaming. Greenwood Publishing Group.
Callaway, J (1988).Proposed Mechanism for the Visions of Dream Sleep. Medical Hypotheses. 26, 119-124.
Cramer, H., Rudolph, J., Consbruch, U., &  Kendel, K., (1974) On the Effects of Melatonin on Sleep and Behavior in Man. Advances in Biochemical Psychopharmacology, 11.
Hobson, A. J. (2002). The Dream Drugstore: Chemically Altered States of Consciousness. MIT Press.
Kaslin, J., Nystedt, J. M., Ostergard, M., Peitsaro, N., & Panula, P. (2004). The orexin/hypocretin system in zebrafish is connected to the aminergic and cholinergic systems. The Journal of Neuroscience , 2678-2689.
LaBerg, Stephen, & Rheingold, Howard (1997). Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming.Ballantine Books.
Lucidology, (2008). Lucid Dream Forum, OBE Forum. Retrieved March 30, 2009, from Saltcube Lucid Dream and OBE Forum Web site: http://www.saltcube.com
Maurizi, C (1985).The Anatomy and Chemistry of Hallucinations and a Rational Surgical Approach to the Treatment of Some Schizophrenic Syndromes. Medical Hypotheses. 17, 227-229.
Moussard, C., Alber, D., Mozer, J. L., & Henry, J. C., (1994). Effect of Chronic REM Sleep Deprivation on Pituitary, Hypothalamus and Hippocampus PGE2 and PGD2 Biosynthesis In the Mouse. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids. 51, 369-372.
Oneirology. (2009).  Strassman interview. Retrieved February 9, 2010, from http://lucidconsciousness.com/?p=107 
Richards, David (2006). Night Terros Resource Center Forum. Retrieved March 30, 2009, from Night Terrors Resource Center Web site: http://www.nightterrors.org
Strassman, Rick (2001). DMT: Spirit Molecule. Rochester: Park Street Press.
Rogers, N. L., Bowes, J., Lushington, k., & Dawson, D. (2009). Thermoregulatory changes around the time of sleep onset. Physiology & Behavior, 90, 643-647.
Yuschak, T. (2006). Advanced Lucid Dreaming - The Power of Supplements. Lulu.com
 
Figure Captions
Figure 1. Sleep phase and chemical phase conversion of dissociation processes.
Figure 2. Processes of disassociation due to brainstem modulation.
Figure 3. Chemical phase conversion in the pineal gland.

model1dream

sleepphase

Sleep Mentations and Other Cognitive Realities

Abstract




Humans have long been interested in the alteration of their consciousness. They have done so through a variety of means, including external chemicals, physical stressors and mental disciplines. Humans have also taken great care to pay attention to their dreams’ actions in which regularly provides an altered state in which the experience inadvertently interacts with their so called subconscious. No matter what path individuals take to reach these altered states, the states themselves bear striking similarities to one another. By understanding the baseline connections between the disassociation (change in normal consciousness) of individuals in both dreams and in the use of drugs, one may be able to understand the waking consciousness better or conscious altered type disorders. In the past, few researchers have suggested the connection between psychedelics and dreams, but due to lack in technological they were unable to test humans for such indigenous psychoactive drugs. Theses purposed hypothesis are becoming more and more popular as new technology and further research into the reasons for sleep and its chemical relationship to our minds become supported.
 
An Indigenous Hallucinogen the Possible Cause of Dreaming


 The reasons why we dream when we sleep has been a long debated question. Throughout history many theories have come into play, such as Sigmund Freud explaining dreaming as the sub consciousness expressing its repressed emotions (Hobson, 2002).Yet the question still arises of why dreams are so vivid, creative, and full of almost unexplainable confusing events.  Methods have been suggested to explain these phenomena by means of endogenous hallucinogens that are naturally produced by the body (Callaway, 1988). This relationship could be better explained by an identification of other correspondence within dreaming and hallucinogens. Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is one such hallucinogen as it’s indigenously produced in all mammals. Large amounts of DMT have been found to be produced by the lungs as well as the brain (Strassman et al., 2009).
The reasons for the production of DMT are unknown, but it has been hypothesized that dream states as well as altered forums of consciousness followed by visual that rely on the senses of the eyes and psychical hallucinations that rely on the tactile senses, are explained because of DMT as well. Because of the identification of DMT and its correspondence to the experiences that occur during intoxication, DMT is a quality candidate for the dreaming state that occurs during sleep (Callaway, 1988). In order to understand why DMT is such a high candidate for the dreaming state we need to understand the chemical processes that take place during sleep modualation and their relationship to DMT.

Sleep Modulation

 The mind prepares the body for sleep about 12 hours prior to the actual initiation of sleep onset (Barrett & McNamara, 2007). This transition is controlled by what is called the circadian rhythm, a brainstem-controlled mechanism for keeping time, heartbeat, heat control, and many other automatic functions (Barrett & McNamara, 2007). The one aspect of circadian rhythm that deals mainly with sleep is temperature control (Barrett & McNamara, 2007). Temperature control during the 24 hours cycle of the circadian rhythm allows our core temperature to change from cold to hot or hot to cold depending on the phase in the 24 hour cycle (Barrett & McNamara, 2007). During sleep onset our circadian rhythm automatically lowers the body’s core temperature using the body as a radiator. This change in temperature is one of the first signs of brainstem activation which precedes further activation and deactivation of specific brain areas during the 5 sleep stages. This process is later talked about in the activation deactivation section of this paper. The decrease in body temperature is greatly supported by the production of melatonin synthesized in the pineal gland in the brain (Callaway, 1988; Strassman, 2001) and shows that in relation to circadian rhythm, melatonin supports peak core body temperature drop at early morning hours when melatonin levels are highest (Strassman, 2001). Secretions of melatonin into the hypothalamus help in sustaining this process (Cramer, Rudolph, Consbruch, & Kendel, 1974). Sleep modulation specifically is broken up into two categories: Non-REM (NREM) and REM. NREM is broken up into 4 different stages: drowsiness, light sleep, deep sleep, and delta waves. REM represents the last of the sleep phases as stage 5 or Rapid Eye Movement (Yuschak, 2006). These phases are graphically depicted in figure 1.

<Figure 1>

Determining when these stages start and stop is an extremely difficult process since each phase transitions flawlessly into the next and sometimes seems similar to each other. One extremely complex stage of sleep, where the majority of our definition of dreaming comes from, is the REM stage. Although 80% of sleep is spent in the NREM phase (Barrett & McNamara, 2007), a particular amount of attention should be spent on the REM stage and transitional phases to REM since that is where the majority of dream like induced hallucinations occur and when melatonin along with other chemicals are produced in the highest amounts (Callaway, 1988).

Once activated by the circadian rhythm and supported by melatonin production, the brainstem starts to modulate the brain through physical activation or deactivation of specific areas (Hobson, 2002). These same changes that happen during the sleep transition of NREM to REM are apparent in the onset of all forms of altered consciousness as they ultimately rely on the brainstem for any physical changes in the brain (Hobson, 2002). This brainstem activation either modulates or demodulates different area of the brain depending on what type of activation signal is represented; either by external or indigenous chemical induction (Hobson, 2002).

Possibly one of the most complex stages of our sleep is REM. REM is characterized by the rapid side to side movement of the eyes and the paralysis experienced by the sleeper from the chin down (Yuschak, 2006). Rapid eye movement and dreaming is not limited only to the REM stage but is also experienced during the last stages of NREM or the transitional phase between NREM and REM. The average person experiences 25% of their dreams during the transition from NREM to REM (Hobson, 2002). NREM dreams are described by patients that experience them as less vivid and shorter than those experienced during REM sleep. The differences in intensity of dreams between these stages are attributed to the amount of time spent in sleep, or the length of time the brain has had to produce dream related chemicals. The processes of activation and deactivation of specific parts of the brain during NREM and REM transitions are graphically depicted in figure 2.

 <Figure 2>

Activation and Deactivation

The transition from NREM to REM is described by Allen Hobson and Robert McCarley in their proposed hypothesis of activation synthesis as a process of modulation and demodulation of specific areas of the brain in which dreams are produced (Barrett & McNamara, 2007; Hobson, 2002). This activation synthesis hypothesis builds its foundation on the concepts produced by the REM Dream Theory. In REM Dream Theory, specific neurotransmitters acetylcholine (ACh) and histamine REM on, as well as serotonin REM off cause either modulation or demodulation of the brainstem (Hobson, 2002). The activation synthesis theory states that during the transitional phase between NREM and REM sleep, the brainstem has already systematically deactivated the aminergic systems, which disengages the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and blocks muscle motor function via the pontine brainstem’s deactivation of the anterior horn cells. The now deactivated aminergic system results in the loss of the ability to process new memories, cognitive functions of the ego, and the paralysis that inhibits the acting out of dreams (Hobson, 2002). This deactivation accounts for the common occurrence of amnesia that many people experience during sleep, the inability to understand self and to recognize the bizarreness of dreams, as well as the inability to move which has been experienced by some lucid dreamers, night terror patients, and narcoleptic patients (Hobson, 2002) (Lucidology, 2008; Richard, 2006). This modulation of specific areas of the brain is due to the increase in acetylcholine and results from the activation of the cholergenic REM on system (Hobson, 2002).

Using Hobson’s activation synthesis theory as a model, we can understand the reasons for the type of dreams that are experienced during NREM phase 2, and REM stage 5 of sleep. We can also produce a theory of why dreams occur during sleep, due to the chemical process that occurs during sleep. These occurrences may be explained by the remarkable correlation between the pineal gland and the synthesis of specific neurotransmitters that may contain psychoactive properties.



Dreams and the Pineal Gland

Neurotransmitters are the basic communication tool between neurons as well as activators and deactivators of multiple functions. During sleep, a large amount of these neurotransmitters are being replenished in the form of serotonin. Not one neurotransmitter completes only one function, on the contrary they sometimes complete functions that are in opposition of each other and brain function, competing for a completed task (Hobson, 2002). The more research is conducted on sleep and dreams the easier it is to understand how complex and integrated with neurotransmitter function sleep really is. In dealing with sleep and dreams we can break neurotransmitters into two basic groups - the aminergic system, comprised of the neurotransmitters dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin, as well as the cholinergic system, composed of the neurotransmitters acetylecholine, and histamine. The process of how the aminergic and cholinergic systems function in sleep can be described as a REM-on and REM-off type switch (Hobson, 2002).

The pineal gland is a chemical production factory, either producing melatonin or serotonin depending on the presence of absence of light. In this process, light source information is relayed from the eyes via the optic nerves and results in the activation of synthesizers that either produces melatonin in the absence of light or serotonin in the presence of light, becoming the brains largest producer of serotonin. Also in the absence of light, other process are continued as melatonin is then processed into tryptamine and pinoline. Pinoline is a beta-carbolin called 6-Methoxytetrahydro-beta-carboline and acts as a monoamine oxidase-A inhibitor (MAOI) which in turn allows for the increases concentrations of serotonin (Callaway, 1988). The synthesis of tryptamines and pinoline is most dominate during the REM stage of sleep but also shows partial activation during NREM phases 2 as well as during highly stressful situations in animal and human lives (Strassman, 2001). In relation these stressful events, dreams also turn out to occur during this time. Some beta-carbolines and tryptamines have also been known to cause psychedelic hallucinations as they deal directly with brainstem modulation (Hobson, 2002; Callaway, 1988). Melatonin has also been reported as having hallucinogenic effects on the brain; however, recent studies have shown negative evidence of such a relationship and that the further chemical breakdown of the beta-carbolines and tryptamines from melatonin are the results of these experiences (Cramer, et al., 1974; Strassman, 2001). The buildup of these two known types of hallucinogens in the form of pinoline and tryptamines could easily explain the visual mentations experienced during specific pineal gland stimulation. Blinding of the nerve fibers from cervical ganglion and the pineal causing inactivation of the melatonin process has been suggested as a way to reduced waking hallucinations in schizophrenic syndromes and shows support towards the pineal glands involvement in dreams (Maurizi, 1985). The processes of chemical conversion inside the pineal gland during different stages of sleep and light interaction are graphically depicted in figure 3.



<Figure 3>

 Pineal Location in Relation to the Brain

The location of the pineal gland is also very important in supporting how an indigenous psychedelic excretion from this gland would cause the described effects of dreaming. The pineal gland is located directly over the colliculi and is surrounded by the limbic system (Strassman, 2001). If hallucinogenic chemicals excreted from the pineal gland, the result could be a barrage of emotional thoughts with respect to the involvement of the limbic system and a combination of audio and visual alterations in the colliculi experienced during dreaming. Due to the position of the pineal gland, blood flow is not necessary for the transfer of hallucinogens to the regions of the brain most affected. It can be assumed then, a type of dreaming could occur at the point of death in the patient and possibly explaining out of body experiences and other religious experiences due to the interaction of the pineal produced chemicals and the brain.

The question still presents itself of what indigenous tryptamine based psychedelic would produce such dreams since beta-carboline pinoline may be psychedelic in nature but most likely not potent enough to cause full blown psychedelic experiences as experienced in dreams. It has been hypothesized that the indigenous psychedelic Di-methyle-trypamine (DMT) and LSD-25 could be the answer (Shulgin & Shulgin, 1991).
DMT, LSD-25, and Other Psychedelics

 
Understanding the different key precursors needed to make indigenous DMT and LSD-25 is an important part in understanding why the pineal gland has been selected as a possible production tool for tryptamine based psychedelics. The pineal gland, in addition to having its serotonin production properties also has the highest concentration of serotonin in the body (Strassman, 2001). Methyltransferases are necessary enzymes that have the ability to convert serotonin, melatonin, or tryptamine into psychedelics by methylating them (Strassman, 2001). Pinoline as well as other beta-carbolines may support this process by inhibiting the breakdown and extending the effects of tryptamine based psychedelics. With the abundance of serotonin, the transforming based methyltransferases, and the amplification ability of beta-carbolines, the pineal gland is one of the most logical places for indigenous DMT synthesis (Strassman, 2001). Also chemically similar to melatonin is LSD-25, which relates specifically to the activity on the raphe nucleus (a control center for serotonin release) (Maurizi, 1985; Hobson, 2002). Few studies into the relationship of the formation of DMT or LSD-25 in the pineal gland have been conducted; however, indigenous DMT has still been found in the lungs and brain of humans.

Though DMT, LSD-25, and other psychedelic drugs are similar in structure, the effects of these drugs are sometimes dramatically different. These differences are based on the individual as well as the environment of the individual taking the drug. A few instances have occurred where the same psychedelic trip has been described by different people taking the same drug. The amount of drug administered is also another key factor in how the effects of the drugs will be experienced. Dreams seem to follow the same trend as psychedelic as they are normally random and differ in intensity from dream to dream and person to person as well as setting. Vividness as well as intensity of the dream also increases with the amount of sleep the individual receives. This is due to the longer lengths of REM sleep as well as if they have a fully active pineal gland. With these common experiences, it is easy justify a relationship between dreams, psychedelic experiences, and the pineal gland.

Discussion
Using psychedelic experiences as a model for dreams we can explore the effects of altered states of mind while subjects are fully conscious. Further research into this field could give scientist a better understanding of the subconscious minds true intent in altered states as well as possibly answering the question of why dreams occur. Research into understanding the true purpose of the pineal gland and its production of indigenous tryptamine based psychedelics may also help in understanding sleep disorders such as night terrors, sleep paralysis, and narcolepsy. This type of research should be conducted in a controlled environment to increase manipulation of the dependent variables and maximizing the authority of such research. Development of more sensitive testing assay for indigenous psychedelic drugs allowing for baseline values in normal patients should be developed before future research is conducted.

Though DMT is a great candidate for the explanation of why dreams occur, there is still little correlative data that can support this theory.  In Callaway’s article, he proposes that further research be conducted on the levels of beta-carbolines in the spinal fluid during the sleep wake cycles (Callaway, 1988). Another suggestion by Strassman has been to measure DMT levels in the blood during the same sleep wake cycles; however no accurate measurement tool has been created (Strassman et al., 2009). Currently, measurement tools are being researched and created by a group of individuals at the Louisiana State University (Onerology, 2009).
 

References
Barrett, D., & McNamara, P. (2007). The New Science of Dreaming. Greenwood Publishing Group.
Callaway, J (1988).Proposed Mechanism for the Visions of Dream Sleep. Medical Hypotheses. 26, 119-124.
Cramer, H., Rudolph, J., Consbruch, U., &  Kendel, K., (1974) On the Effects of Melatonin on Sleep and Behavior in Man. Advances in Biochemical Psychopharmacology, 11.
Hobson, A. J. (2002). The Dream Drugstore: Chemically Altered States of Consciousness. MIT Press.
Kaslin, J., Nystedt, J. M., Ostergard, M., Peitsaro, N., & Panula, P. (2004). The orexin/hypocretin system in zebrafish is connected to the aminergic and cholinergic systems. The Journal of Neuroscience , 2678-2689.
LaBerg, Stephen, & Rheingold, Howard (1997). Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming.Ballantine Books.
Lucidology, (2008). Lucid Dream Forum, OBE Forum. Retrieved March 30, 2009, from Saltcube Lucid Dream and OBE Forum Web site: http://www.saltcube.com
Maurizi, C (1985).The Anatomy and Chemistry of Hallucinations and a Rational Surgical Approach to the Treatment of Some Schizophrenic Syndromes. Medical Hypotheses. 17, 227-229.
Moussard, C., Alber, D., Mozer, J. L., & Henry, J. C., (1994). Effect of Chronic REM Sleep Deprivation on Pituitary, Hypothalamus and Hippocampus PGE2 and PGD2 Biosynthesis In the Mouse. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids. 51, 369-372.
Oneirology. (2009).  Strassman interview. Retrieved February 9, 2010, from http://lucidconsciousness.com/?p=107 
Richards, David (2006). Night Terros Resource Center Forum. Retrieved March 30, 2009, from Night Terrors Resource Center Web site: http://www.nightterrors.org
Strassman, Rick (2001). DMT: Spirit Molecule. Rochester: Park Street Press.
Rogers, N. L., Bowes, J., Lushington, k., & Dawson, D. (2009). Thermoregulatory changes around the time of sleep onset. Physiology & Behavior, 90, 643-647.
Yuschak, T. (2006). Advanced Lucid Dreaming - The Power of Supplements. Lulu.com
 
Figure Captions
Figure 1. Sleep phase and chemical phase conversion of dissociation processes.
Figure 2. Processes of disassociation due to brainstem modulation.
Figure 3. Chemical phase conversion in the pineal gland.

model1dream

sleepphase